The Galileo spacecraft studied Jupiter’s atmosphere and revealed numerous large thunderstorms many times larger than those on Earth, with lightning strikes up to 1,000 times more powerful than Earth lightning. Galileo studied the planet’s clouds and winds and furthered scientists’ understanding of how Jupiter evolved. The same spacecraft also observed comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 impact Jupiter. The comet struck Jupiter at 200,000 mph and exploded with a fireball 1,900 miles high. The impact left dark scars on Jupiter that were two or three times larger than the Earth.

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Paleohistology is a highly specialized field within paleontology that studies ancient fossilized tissues such as bone, cartilage, and teeth, using techniques such as thin sectioning, histological staining, and microscopy (for cellular structures). By analyzing the microstructure of fossilized tissues, paleohistologists can provide a very wide variety of insights from extinct organisms, such as: physiology, growth patterns, metabolic rates, adaptations, vertebrate evolution, the origin of flight in birds, the evolution of mammalian reproduction, the diversity of dinosaur life, population demographics, habitat preferences, responses to environmental change, past environments and ecosystems, long-term effects of climate change, mass extinctions, and other evolutionary processes.

The physical color of an object depends on how it absorbs and scatters light. Most objects scatter light to some degree and do not reflect or transmit light specularly like glasses or mirrors. An opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and instead absorbs or reflects the light it receives. A transparent object allows almost all light to transmit or pass through, thus transparent objects are perceived as colorless. When we view an object of a specific color, some of the light hitting that object is reflected and detected by our photoreceptors in our eye, while other light is absorbed by the object. Black is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. We see the ocean as blue because it absorbs the red light and reflects and scatters the blue.

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Neuroplasticity describes the brain’s ability to reorganize and rewire its neural connections, enabling it to adapt and function in ways that differ from its prior state. The brain reorganizes and grows new neural connections in response to learning new skills, experiencing environmental changes, recovering from injuries, or adapting to sensory or cognitive deficits. This process highlights an ever-evolving nature of the brain, even into adulthood.

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The most ductile and malleable metal is gold. It can be drawn into a wire of single-atom width, and then stretched considerably before it breaks. A single gram of gold can be beaten into an 11 sq ft sheet. Gold leaf can be beaten thin enough to become semi-transparent. Gold semi-transparent sheets reflect infrared light, making them useful as heat shields in spacesuit visors. Gold’s high malleability and conductivity of electricity have led to its continued use in electrical connectors in computerized devices.

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