Hormones play a very large part in the physiological processes of the body. The endocrine system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete hormones of diverse chemical structure, including peptides, steroids, and neuroamines. The nervous system and the endocrine system are linked in a process known as neuroendocrine integration. The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating reproduction, metabolism, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure. Neuroendocrinology is the branch of biology (specifically of physiology) which studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system; i.e. how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body.
Meganeuropsis permiana was considered the largest insect of all time, it was a dragonfly relative with an estimated wingspan of around 710 mm (28 in). It existed before the dinosaurs, during the Artinskian age of the Permian period, 290.1–283.5 million years ago. There are several theories as to why insects were so big during this time. One theory was that oxygen levels in the atmosphere were significantly higher than today, although there is some controversy regarding this theory. Another theory was that insects at the time were at the top of the food-chain, with few predators.
Meganeuropsis Werner Kraus, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
In psychology, cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon where people unknowingly or subconsciously hold fundamentally conflicting cognitions (mental processes). Being confronted by situations that create this dissonance or highlight these inconsistencies can cause stress and motivates change in their thoughts or actions to reduce this dissonance. Persons who experience internal inconsistency tend to become psychologically uncomfortable and are motivated to reduce the cognitive dissonance in several ways, such as: rationalization (justifying the behavior), using a just-world fallacy, using selective perception (ignoring some info), or avoiding information (resulting in confirmation bias).
Octopus have neurons in their arms as well as their brain. The Octopus nervous system is divided into three main parts: A central brain, two optic lobes, and the peripheral nervous system of the arms. The eight arms of an octopus contains two-thirds (a majority) of the octopus’s total 500 million nerve cells, allowing for special motor and sensory processing within the arms. Octopuses are highly intelligent in a variety of ways: showing an ability of long and short-term memory, pattern and shape recognition, tool use, play, and problem solving.
Scientists studying dinosaur fossils are able to tell with some certainty the color patterns the dinosaur exhibited. The Microraptor, for example, likely had shiny iridescent black feathers (similar to a crow) used for signaling. Another example is the Borealopelta, which had a reddish-brown countershaded pattern that was used for camouflage. Sinosauropteryx had a raccoon-like “mask” around the eyes and banded patterns on its tail. To infer these colors, scientists have studied well preserved melanosomes found in fossilized skin and feathers. Scientists study the shape, color, and nanostructures of the melanosomes.
